The Afghan economy is primarily based on agriculture (crops, livestock, and horticulture). According to 1993 estimates agriculture supports about 85% of the total population of Afghanistan and accounts for about 50% of GDP. Agriculture, which has traditionally been the largest source of economic output in Afghanistan, has so far largely been a household activity. Not only men, but women and children as well used to have important roles in crop production, horticulture, and the rearing of livestock.

Current state of Agriculture in Afghanistan
Agriculture in Afghanistan has deteriorated markedly during the past two decades. The current drought has added a further burden to the adverse long-term trends which have already afflicted Afghan agriculture. The protracted conflict, the erosion of the agricultural production base, loss of irrigation and other infrastructure and declining non-agricultural income generation opportunities have pushed Afghan agricultural production to the brink. The drought and excessive, uncontrolled harvesting of groundwater have led to an alarming decline in water tables in many parts of the country. Livestock herds, an important asset and safety net, have been severely depleted. Returning refugees are putting further pressure on both land and other resources. If food and fuel support is not available, these people are likely to practice environmentally degrading methods of agriculture, and tap sources of energy in an unsustainable manner. To prevent such destruction, and to boost Afghanistan's long-term prospects for a strong agriculture sector, one needs to promote the development and implementation of sound policies for natural resource management.

Even if the monsoons return, Afghanistan would be in need of major remedial and rehabilitation measures to put its agriculture back on rails. A weak agricultural recovery would worsen the vicious circle whereby the weak agricultural base increases the country's vulnerability to drought, and drought in turn further weakens the agricultural base. If this decline cannot be arrested early the country might become perennially dependent on food imports and food aid for meeting the nation's food demand.

Profile of the Agrarian Situation in Afghanistan
In pre-Soviet days Afghanistan was largely self-sufficient in food and was also a significant exporter of high quality fruit, silk, cotton and other agricultural products. However, more than 20 years of civil war and the accompanying destruction of infrastructure and the environment have left the people of the country struggling to sustain themselves. As if the war by itself was not enough to cause damage, the three years of drought (1999-2001) that Afghanistan hasn't yet fully recovered from, has devastated the country's agriculture. By 2001 cereal production, the main determinant of domestic food supply, had fallen by almost 40% since 1999, and was only half of what it was in pre-war years. Higher rainfall in 2002, backed by the increased availability and higher quality of seeds, fertilizers, and other key inputs, has led the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Food Program (WFP) to estimate an 82 per cent rise in agricultural output in Afghanistan from the level attained in 2001. Aggregate 2002 cereal production is nevertheless estimated at 4% below the 1998 crop. A March 2002 FAO survey reports that the total livestock population in Afghanistan had declined by about 60% from 1998 levels due to continued distressed selling of animals, especially during the summer and autumn drought of 2001. As refugees return to rural areas, pressure on natural resources—particularly water and forests—is likely to increase, raising risks of furthering environmental degradation. Ploughing of steep hillsides, stripping of brushwood for fuel, and use of animal dung for fuel rather than as fertilizer has already made a dent on productivity of Afghan lands.

Topography holds a great influence on the local climate and water resources in Afghanistan, on where people live and what they can produce for their survival and sustenance; and how they interact with one another and with the wider world. The Hindu Kush range bisects Afghanistan from east to west. While in the east are the steep high peaks of the Wakhan Corridor at an altitude of 5500 to 7500 metres above sea level (masl), in east-central and central Afghanistan the mountains broaden into wide spurs fanning to the north and south at between 3000 and 4000 masl. The Safed Koh Range north of Herat and close to the north-western border in the west of Afghanistan are at an average altitude of about 1100 masl.

The accumulated winter snow from the high mountains sustains Afghan agriculture. The changing landscape down the length of the snow-fed river valleys alters the production possibilities as the altitude gets reduced. In their upper reaches the valleys are steep, the rivers fast-flowing, and the valley floors narrow. The winters are cold, but the summers are mild with short but abundant growing seasons. Lower down, the valley floors broaden into flat plains with slow-flowing rivers. Here the winters are milder and the summers hotter and the growing seasons longer.

The differences in local agricultural systems can be partly attributed to the changing altitudes in the Afghan landscape, with the latter influencing the accessibility of water for irrigation. The fast-flowing streams of the upper reaches are hard to divert into simple canals and the irrigable land areas are small. In the lower reaches the rivers are slower-flowing and the irrigable land areas larger. Though many crops that grow in the lower areas also grow in the mountains, the production systems are different.

Afghanistan had been divided into eleven agro-ecological or production zones excluding Herat, for which data was not available at that time that the division was done. Six of these zones are in the Hindu Kush mountains, while the remaining five fall in the desert and the plain regions which surround the mountains to the north, west, south and south-east. Higher the altitude, greater is the amount of precipitation and the shorter the growing season due to frost hazard. Four of the zones, those in the high mountains, see agriculture being limited due to frost, though rainfall is sufficient in the area. A couple of the zones are flat with sufficient length of growing season for double cropping under irrigated conditions. However, in these zones the limits of cultivation are determined by the amount of rainfall and available irrigation facilities.

Ownership and access to land and water resources is a complex issue, deeply woven into the fabric of Afghan society. While local khans or wealthy farmers may be disproportionately large landowners, many more families have access to land through a complex system of sharecropping and leasing. The sharecropper uses land or water belonging to another, and in return pays a proportion of the production to the owner of the resource that the sharecropper uses. The proportion the sharecropper has to pay varies according to the respective contributions of the landowner and the sharecropper of various inputs, namely land, water, seed and fertiliser, farm power and farm labour. In general, each of these elements is valued at one-fifth of the output, though the arrangements can vary widely according to the agreements between the landowner and the sharecropper.

Apart from the sharecropping model, other land access arrangements can be:
(i) Renting; where the user pays the owner a fixed amount of produce or money either annually or on a long-term basis;
(ii) Moneylender's lease, where the land is handed over for use by the lender in return for a loan to the owner, though the ownership is not transferred;
(iii) Mortgage, where the landowner mortgages his land to the lender in return for a loan that the landowner might require for other inputs. Possession of the title to land is taken as security for a loan to the owner.

Leasing is often associated with fruit production. The owner of an orchard or vineyard leases the trees to a fruit merchant or trader who assumes responsibility for the final stages of production and particularly for harvesting and marketing the crop. The rent paid is often a fixed sum, rather than a percentage of the yield.

Farming Systems
Afghan agricultural production is characterised by small holdings with irrigated cropping supplemented by livestock. Cropping intensity is a function of availability of irrigation water, particularly for summer crops, and the length of growing season. Crop rotations are a well-established practice and legumes, animal manures and artificial fertilisers are used. The most prevalent farming systems in Afghanistan, depending on the altitude and landscape, are

1. Mixed irrigated and rainfed cropping, with a relatively large livestock component
2. Intermediate altitude intensive cropping system
3. Intermediate-low altitude high productivity, double cropping system
4. High altitude cold area intensive food cropping system
5. Low intensity subsistence cropping and livestock system
6. Large-area mechanised food grains and industrial crop production
7. Intensive commercial horticulture and cereal cropping ^[1]

The above-mentioned farming systems account for over 95% of irrigated agriculture and 85% of rainfed land. The high mountainous areas of the central plateau and the north-eastern mountains, where agriculture is practiced in scattered small pockets in an arid landscape, are excluded. The nomadic livestock owners (kuchis) who represent some 7% to 10% of the population and are the principal users of the semi arid lands have also been left out.

The livestock system comprises of cattle and donkeys that provide draught or cartage power and usually receive supplementary fodder from the irrigated area, and sheep and goats. While the livestock survive largely by foraging on the sparse rangeland grazing, crop byproducts such as husks and stover are also used as cattlefeed. Animal products used by the household include milk, meat, wool, hair, hides and dung.It is estimated that in 1999 the kuchis reared 30% of the national sheep herd, 39% of the goats, 5% of cattle, 54% of horses, 14% of donkeys and 63% of Afghanistan's camels.

The table below gives details of the percentage of national irrigated and rainfed areas in the various regions of Afghanistan and the systems which are typically found in these regions. The table should not, however, be regarded as definitive as there are many overlaps and localised exceptions in the boundaries between the various farming systems.

Farming systems 2, 3 and 4 are highly productive. Their predominant area is the river valleys of the Eastern Mountains. While the area under these systems cover only 15 per cent of Afghanistan's irrigated area and only 3 per cent of its rainfed area, this region is densely populated owing to the high productivity in this region.of these systems. The region includes two major cities (Kabul and Jalalabad) and accounts for over 30% of national population.

Systems 6 and 7 cover an eighth of the country's irrigated area. They are prevalent in the hot arid areas of the Helmand Valley-Sistan Basin in the south and therefore have almost no rainfed production. Systems 1 and 5 are the most geographically widespread. System 1 is largely practised north of the Hindu Kush and accounts for around 30 per cent of irrigated land and 60 per cent of rainfed agriculture. While the rainfed cereal production is highly erratic, in good years very large surpluses are generated. System 5 is a marginal subsistence system. It is the most commonly occurring farming system representing nearly 35 per cent of irrigated area and 25 per cent of rainfed production. It is particularly associated with irrigation from kareze^[2] and wells.

The systems of the mountain valleys, (Nos. 2 and 4), are river-fed. Though highly productive, the cold weather at higher altitudes makes the growing season in such areas late and short. As a result this area cannot grow more than one crop in a year. The warmer weather at lower altitudes (System 3) allows double cropping and in some favoured areas in the Eastern zone, even three crops a year. System 5 is typical of many mid-level mountain areas. These include the greater part of the farming areas fed by underground water (kareze and wells) which are widespread through the Southern Mountains and Foothills, the Central Mountains and the Herat-Farah Lowlands.

The difference between this and the other mountain-area systems is that kareze or wells are the main water source and that water, and not land, is the limiting resource. This system is always at risk from erratic water supply. In order to counter this problem farmers leave fallows to allow storage of moisture. The wide spread of this problem of unreliable water availability in Afghanistan is reflected in the fact that more than three-fifths of the total irrigated area in the country is classified as ‘intermittently irrigated'.

Poor average crop yields are often cited as a contributing factor to food shortages. The use of high yielding crop varieties and greater use of fertiliser are widely promoted as means of increasing average crop yield and food production. However, such solutions do not tackle the fundamental cause of the problem in Afghanistan. Unreliable water supply is the chronic problem that leaves Afghan farmers at greater risk of poor crop performance.

A wide variety of crops are grown throughout Afghanistan. Wheat is grown in every area.Fruit trees such as apricots, almonds and walnuts and grapevines are also widely found. The table below outlines some of the principal crops grown using the various farming systems in Afghanistan.

Opium Cultivation in Afghanistan
Opium poppy is a traditional crop in Afghanistan. Grown in small plots, it was initially used extensively in many parts of the country as the only available medicine for a range of ailments. In high altitude hardship areas the crop has also enabled people to cope with the endemic winter food shortages. However opium took on a new role, that as a means of exchange, when the civil economy collapsed, particularly following the Soviet invasion in 1979 and the period of mujahideen civil war (1992-96) which followed the fall of the Najibullah government. The growing of opium also allowed many Afghan families finding it difficult to survive practicing of subsistence farming in a ruined economy to gain access to land and credit and generate cash income.

Survey data, as recorded by the UN Drug Control Programme Annual Opium Survey (UNDCP), show that the total area planted with poppy was relatively stable at between 53-64,000 hectares between 1995-98. However following a low yielding season in 1998, planted area increased by over 40% in the next year to 91,000 hectares. In 2000, the planted area fell again, by about 10%, to 82,200 hectares. Beside the increase in area planted with poppy, a number of new poppy producing provinces have evolved in the eastern region of the country. Also poppy plantation has moved across the Hindu Kush into a number of northern provinces in recent years.

Poppy production in Afghanistan involves large landowners, owner-farmers and the landless, who farm as tenants or sharecroppers. Besides a large body of itinerant labourers does much of the harvesting. The mobility and experience of these itinerant labourers, and their skill in production and harvesting have contributed significantly to the spread of poppy cultivation into new areas. Large dealers, professional traders, local shopkeepers, farmers, and itinerant speculators are all involved in marketing the produce.

Growing opium is one of the best options for farmers in Afghanistan to obtain credit, create savings, gain access to land, and have a cash income with which to feed a family. Crop yields on much of the irrigated land are below potential because of inadequate irrigation facilities. Markets for outputs are often non-existent, and there is little private capital and no formal system providing credit. Where credit is available it is unregulated, and lenders often charge very exorbitant rates of interest. Farmers often pay 25% to 50% higher prices for fertiliser bought on credit compared to the open market price.

Since the collapse of the Communist government in 1992, some international assistance has been given to Afghanistan to enable the return of refugees and the re-establishment of agricultural production. Much of this has been short-term, aimed at the rapid rehabilitation of basic productive resources damaged and destroyed during years of unrest. Between 1992 and 1997 the country produced an estimated 70% of its own food needs. However, the drought that raged in the country during1999-2001 has shown that these gains had been very fragile. Afghanistan's grain production has fallen by more than 50% in the last two years and now meets less than half of total national grain requirements. Prospects of starvation again loom large on Afghanistan ever since the country was affected by the drought.

What can be done?
More than 85% of agricultural output in Afghanistan comes from barely 5% of the land area. Raising agricultural productivity will require raising crop production, raising livestock production and increasing horticulture and agro-forestry. Reviving Afghan agriculture requires some effective steps to be taken. These include:

• Providing farmers with better quality seeds and improved technical inputs and credit on easy terms for purchasing inputs

• Improving availability and management of irrigation water: Pre-war surveys indicated that 80% of wheat and 85% of all crops were produced on irrigated land. While land is the main limiting factor in mountainous Afghanistan, water is the scarcest resource in Afghan agriculture. Nationwide the volume and reliability of water limit what can be produced. Water supply in the country is seasonal and uneven, both within and between years. Often crops cannot survive if supply runs short. Even then much of the available water is wasted on fields which are not level and also through over-watering. The food supply from irrigated agriculture can be both increased and stabilised by improving the efficiency of use of the available water. One can use food-for-work programmes to build and repair larger irrigation systems that cannot be managed by local communities and level uneven fields. Cleaning and repair of smaller, local and community-oriented irrigation schemes should be encouraged through programmes that encourage community participation and promote sustainability.

The drought has led individuals to drill deep bores and pump water for irrigation. There have been reports of falling underground water levels, particularly where bores have been drilled in the vicinity of kareze villages. Since 1996 the irrigated area, has declined by around 60%. In many areas ground water levels could not be restored. Such actions have the potential to do long-term damage to the entire system of agriculture based on underground water.

• Developing longer-term strategies and interventions: Preservation of groundwater resources, encouraging reforestation, sustaining increased horticultural production, and promotion of effective functioning of agricultural input and output markets will help Afghan agriculture in the long run. Afghanistan has an excellent climate for tree production. A wide variety of temperate fruits and nuts - almonds, apples, apricots, grapes, mulberries, peaches, pomegranates, plums and walnuts – grow in the country. Mulberry trees grown around a fishpond can feed both the fish and silkworms, generating food and cash and subsequently providing usable timber. Fruit production is both a significant potential source of food and an opportunity for farmers to develop commercial activities. There is also scope to boost timber production, as timber, both for fuel and commercial uses, is in short supply. Use of fast-growing poplars will help meet the demand for commercial timber. A key challenge will be to put in place and strengthen marketing systems to maximise the incomes realised from expanded horticultural production.

In the late 1970s, horticulture accounted for around 40% of the country's export earnings. But horticulture occupied only some 6% of the total arable land and 12% of the irrigated land. Production declined rapidly during the war years, but began to recover significantly after 1992. A 1996 FAO survey found that 40% of orchards were less than 15 years old, indicating strong resilience among farmers, who are replanting and improving their orchards.

Promotion of improved technologies in the irrigated and rainfed crops, livestock, horticulture, forestry and agro-forestry, and irrigation sectors (water management), and expansion of watershed management and forestry and agro-forestry programme to priority areas will a;lso help the country to raise its agricultural output. Improved technical knowledge on production, crop care and pest control will enable farmers to raise the productivity of their resources like labour, land and water.

• Improving animal health, husbandry and nutrition and animal productivity through better nutrition, disease control and housing: Livestock are a significant source of food for many households and of draught and transport power for agriculture. Many rural households have one or more cows and a number of sheep and goats. The nomadic kuchi population of 1.5 million people exists almost solely on livestock products. Livestock are also important in the household economy as a major form of savings and a source of cash income when needed. The national livestock herd is estimated at 3.7 million cattle, 22 million sheep, 9 million goats, 1.4 million donkeys and horses and 11 million poultry, and steps taken to ensure their well-being and raise their productivity will in turn aid the survival of the Afghan population dependent on livestock farming. Programmes have commenced to expand the available range and use of fodder crops to improve the quality of livestock feed and widen crop rotations to improve soil fertility. There are a number of fast-growing leguminous trees which provide fodder for livestock and can be used to stabilise erosion and revegetate rangelands.

Livestock is also an important item for exports from the country. At one point, prior to the war, livestock exports accounted for two-fifths of Afghan exports. While herd numbers declined significantly during the war years, herds (particularly sheep and goat) did begin to recover in the mid-1990s. However the three-year drought again resulted in herd numbers falling by about 40%.

• Improving agricultural markets: Finding a market for the produce of the cultivators is a very important link in the chain of steps needed to be taken to boost agricultural production. The agricultural marketing infrastructure in Afghanistan has suffered badly as a result of the war. The damages to roads, communications systems and processing facilities have all had adverse impacts on farmers' ability to sell their product. The government should assist producers in the development of local storage and small-scale processing facilities and improve access to information along the marketing chain. Better information can often prevent gluts in the market, as has been that nation's experience with onions in recent years.

December 20, 2003.

 [1] Source: SCA Farming Systems in Afghanistan, Peshawar 1993
 [2] See http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1808/18080680.htm for details of a kareze.